How to Accept Never Using Heroin Again

History of Heroin

Sections

HEROIN AS A WONDER DRUG
ABUSE OF HEROIN
INTERNATIONAL CONTROL OF HEROIN
LICIT MANUFACTURE AND CONSUMPTION OF DIACETYLMORPHINE
Nowadays STAGE OF THE HEROIN Trouble

Details

Pages: 3 to 16
Creation Date: 1953/01/01

General & TECHNICAL

History of Heroin

INTRODUCTION

The great advances in medical therapy in the by century take been due largely to the rapid development of chemistry and pharmacology. During this catamenia innumerable compounds obtained in chemical laboratories, were tested for their pharmacological activity. Those proving satisfactory were then produced commercially.

The extent of public acceptance and usage of any 1 drug has ordinarily been determined past the medical profession. The use of many of the new compounds was merely of short duration; they were frequently replaced by other compounds found to be more constructive, or which did not provoke inconvenient side reactions.

The case of "Heroin" (diacetylmorphine) is almost unique. Hailed as a wonder drug, it was received with enthusiasm by the medical profession. Inevitably, the deleterious effects of the drug were discovered. Although many doctors discontinued prescribing heroin and all warned against devil-may-care use of the drug, the marketplace for information technology continued to flourish. A dangerous habit-producing drug, it was not easy to curtail its usage.

This paper proposes to trace the story of heroin from its discovery and enthusiastic credence until its nowadays doubtful status to-twenty-four hours.

HEROIN AS A WONDER DRUG

Although diacetylmorphine was non prescribed as a medicine much before 1900 its preparation had already been reported in 1874 past C. R. Wright at St. Mary's Hospital in London.[1] The chief purpose of his work was to determine the constitution of some natural and purified alkaloids. By boiling anhydrous morphine alkaloid for several hours with acetic anhydride he was able to isolate acetylated morphine derivatives. The general formulation of the morphine molecule in those days was that it was represented by the double empirical formula[2] which gave rise to the rather confusing nomenclature in his commodity. The farthermost acetylated derivative which he obtained, he chosen " Tetra acetyl morphine." This compound corresponds to diacetylmorphine according to our nowadays nomenclature.

This "Tetra acetyl morphine" was sent to F. M. Pierce, Associate at Owens Higher, London, for biological assay. After having tested the compound in animal experiments he reported the following results to Wright. The effects were:i"... peachy prostration, fear, sleepiness speedily following the administration, the eyes being sensitive and pupils dilated, consider able salivation existence produced in dogs, and slight trend to airsickness in some cases, only no actual emesis. Respiration was at first quickened, but afterward reduced, and the heart's action was diminished and rendered irregular. Marked want of coordinating power over the muscular movements and the loss of power in the pelvis and hind limbs, together with a diminution of temperature in the rectum of nigh 4°, were the nearly noticeable effects."

From a medical point of view the interest in this new morphine derivative was not very high for the starting time 20 years. In 1890, a German scientist, W. Dankwortt,[3] prepared diacetylmorphine by heating anhydrous morphine with excess acetylchloride. The issue of his piece of work is important, not from the pharmacological, but from the chemical point of view. Because of the nature of the compounds he was able to isolate, he concluded that the morphine molecule had a simple empirical formula rather than the double 1.

In the last decade of the 19th century Dreser[4] and other investigators studied the physiological effects of diacetylmorphine. The favourable reports of these investigators along with the growing involvement in the drug shown by the medical profession of that time, led the Bayer Company in Eberfeld, Frg, to first production of the chemical compound on a commercial scale (1898).

The new compound was marketed past Bayer under the proper name "Heroin." (The name is probably derived from "heroisch" which in High german medical terminology means large, powerful, extreme, one with pronounced effect even in small doses.) Later this name became a synonym for the drug.

The new remedy received a spontaneous and widespread credence comparable to the acceptance of drugs like penicillin or cortisone in the past few years. The high frequency of tuberculosis and other respiratory diseases had created a great demand for an effective remedy and information technology was hoped that heroin would meet this demand.

Prescribed for almost all illnesses in which codeine or morphine had been plant, heroin was also considered to be effective in combating habit to these ii drugs. This enthusiasm for the new drug is all-time illustrated in the medical literature of the time. Though by no means exhaustive, these following excerpts are typical of the writings of the day.

In 1898, Strube[v] reported on the results of studies at the Medical University Clinic of Berlin. Testing heroin on 50 patients affected with phthisis, he found it effective in relieving their cough and in producing sleep. Though Strube observed no agin furnishings, he felt that further observations were necessary to determine whether continual use might be harmful or lead to chronic "heroinism".

At the request of Dreser, Floret experimented with the drug in the Poliklinik der Farbenfabriken (1898).[6] He establish it valuable in the treatment of bronchitis, asthma and tuberculosis. For cases of dry out bronchitis where codeine has been ineffective, Floret reported that heroin was unusually prompt and dependable.

These were amid the experiments that led to Dreser'due south[7] endorsement of heroin at the congress of German Naturalists and Physicians in 1898. Claiming that heroin was 10 times as effective as codeine in the treatment of respiratory diseases, he estimated that it had just one-tenth of the toxic furnishings.

H. Leo[8] in reporting the frequent success he had observed in administering the drug, gave a detailed example history of one of his patients. In 1896, the patient, and so 71 years of age, developed a severe coughing with expectoration and suffered from dyspnea. After being hospitalized in the summer of 1897, and again in the summer of 1898, the patient was finally sent to a sanatorium in November 1898. Past this time his condition had become considerably worse. Respiration was rapid and hard, fat and muscular tissue had deteriorated, the lungs were enlarged and heart activeness was poor.

Past Feb 1899, drugs no longer afforded the patient any relief and he was unable to sleep at night. Heroin was and then prescribed. The description of the treatment follows:

"February four. The patient had been given the first dose the evening before. The night was even so without sleep, only the cough was looser and effortless. Besides the dyspnea was not so pronounced. After he had taken the drug he felt very comfy and stated that he no longer felt sick. The action of the heart was somewhat more regular. The ambition was meliorate.

"February 5. The patient had obtained some sleep. The sensation of fear that was ever with him was gone. The respiratory frequency in the morning was 23. The coughing was without difficulty.

"Feb half-dozen. The patient slept soundly most of the night, in a reclining position. The respiratory frequency in the morning: 20. The action of the heart was regular.

"The heroin was and then withdrawn for eight days. The ailments he had suffered earlier gradually returned. Heroin was again administered and had the same beneficial action as before."

Manges[9] who had previously reported on the advantages of heroin over morphine in the handling of coughs, phthisis and asthma, reiterated his confidence in the drug in 1900.[10] Reviewing the treatment of the 341 respiratory cases by his colleagues, he stated that addiction was noted in less than viii per cent, without the bad effects accompanying morphine handling. Where most of the cases included in Manges report did not evidence habituation, in two cases information technology had besides been found to be successful in breaking addiction to morphine.

Prompted past Harnack'southward[11] warning in 1899, that heroin might be a dangerous poison, Turnauer[12] tested the drug for the possibility of harmful after effects. Afterwards treating 48 cases of phthisis, bronchitis and dyspnea, Turnauer noted a tolerance to the drug. Later on administering heroin for a long period, he institute that the dosage needed to be increased. He stated that he found "No harmful results, especially as I observed no abstinence symptoms whatever. By and large information technology appeared that in all cases in which period of time was immune to elapse the full effect could over again exist obtained with pocket-sized doses ... It may exist concluded that, regarding tolerance to heroin, certain individuals react peculiarly and it is recommended that in the case of old and feeble persons, the initial dose should not be over 0.005 1000."

Horatio C. Forest[xiii] Jr., 1899, besides found that the dosage had to be increased in order to remain effective. He warned that experimentation was still non adequate to warrant the conclusion that heroin was not habit producing.

Many other investigators recommended the employ of heroin at the turn of the century. Most of them failed to refer to the danger in its usage or implicitly stated that information technology did not atomic number 82 to tolerance.

In 1901, Joseph Jacobi, basing himself on the apply of heroin in 85 cases, claimed the drug every bit superior as a cough-soothing remedy. Although he found its employ more effective with patients who had never used strong narcotic drugs, he reported that any tendency towards tolerance could be averted if dosage was concise for several weeks. He too recommended that its use should be alternated with morphine or codeine.

At about this fourth dimension the enthusiasm for heroin started to wane. Morel-Lavallée[15] in 1902 warned against its habit-forming properties although he thought information technology safer to use than morphine. Along with many others Morel-Lavallée advocated treatment past heroin in demorphinisation. His practice was criticized past Jarrige[16] in 1902 who claimed that physicians would thus brand "heroinists" of their patients. Citing several cases of heroinism, he was emphatic in his contention that the withdrawal of heroin was much more painful than that of morphine. Rather than reducing the use of narcotics, the advocation of heroin was responsible for many persons becoming drug addicts.

In 1903 Pettey[17] reported that of the last 150 cases he had treated for drug addiction, eight were heroin users and of these, 3 had first become addicts through the employ of heroin. He further reported that the heroin addiction was just as difficult to cure as the morphine habit.

Sollier,[18] in 1905, deplored the use of heroin in the treatment of morphinism. This practise, he claimed, had resulted in the number of heroin addicts condign as great as that of morphine addicts. Heroin was extremely toxic and the extent of poisoning in the heroinists he had seen, was much greater than it would have been for the same amount of morphine. Sollier constitute that the mental and physical deterioration from the use of heroin was very rapid. He opposed its use in the handling of both morphinism and respiratory diseases.

In the same twelvemonth Atwood[19] reported a example of heroinism in a woman who had become fond to heroin after its use in surgery. Although non as vehement as Sollier and Jarrige, Atwood advised caution in prescribing the drug. Atwood believed cases of heroin habit to be rare, but he pointed out that such cases would get more mutual if no discretion was used by the medical profession and he was against its prescription for coughs, recurring headaches, rheumatism and other chronic diseases.

At that fourth dimension, notwithstanding, there was no other drug that could fully replace heroin for some medical indications, and the medical profession was still in favour of it in spite of knowing many of its disadvantages.

As J. D. Trawick[twenty] of Kentucky expressed it (1911): "I feel that bringing charges confronting heroin is almost like questioning the allegiance of a good friend. I accept used it with skillful results, and I have gotten some bad results, such every bit a peculiar bandlike feeling around the head, dizziness, etc., but in some cases referred to, information technology has been nearly uniformly satisfactory."

ABUSE OF HEROIN

It took a long time for the medical profession to realize the full danger of heroin addiction. On the other hand, very little time passed later the drug had become readily available before the underworld and smugglers discovered that heroin possessed properties even beyond those of other narcotics, which have since made it the main drug of habit in many parts of the world. The analgesic and euphoric properties of heroin are much greater per gram than those of morphine.[21] There is no depression of the alimentary tract equally is found in morphine. Whereas morphine usually is administered past a hypodermic needle, heroin can exist sniffed into the system.[22] This is an important fact since many people are, to get-go with, repelled by the use of a hypodermic needle. However, persons addicted to heroin soon come to use it hypodermically and even intravenously. Equally the sensible upshot wanes with increasing addiction, they try larger doses and more desperate methods of self-administration, always trying to recapture the stimulation of the drug. The habit-forming properties of heroin are more pronounced even than those of morphine. Information technology produces a condone for the conventions and morals of civilization and these symptoms progress more than rapidly than with other habit- forming drugs. Heroin addiction is the most difficult to cure; sudden withdrawal may lead to cramps, convulsions, and even to death from respiratory failure. The post-convalescent treatment, both psychological and physical, is longer and more hard than with morphine.

Drug addiction is an international problem. The addicts preference nevertheless seems to vary greatly in different regions. In the Far East opium has been used as a narcotic for centuries,[23] in the middle East hashish.[24] In South America the chewing of coca leaves is an old habit.[25] Of the so-called "white drugs," the European aficionado has usually bars himself to cocaine and morphine.[26] At that place are iii places in the world where heroin addiction has attracted more attention than whatever other drug addiction: U.S.A., especially the eastern office, Arab republic of egypt, and Cathay. In other places heroin addiction has been more sporadic.

The first place where heroin addiction seems to have been a major problem was the United states of America. The master site of the addiction was New York where 98 per cent of all drug addicts were reported at the time to be heroin addicts.[27]

The Public Health Service Hospitals in the United States discontinued dispensing heroin at its relief stations in 1916. In 1920 the Firm of Delegates of the American Medical Clan at its 71st annual session adopted the post-obit resolution: "that heroin be eliminated from all medicinal preparations and that information technology should not be administered, prescribed, nor dispensed; and that the importation, manufacture, and auction of heroin should exist prohibited in the United States."[28]

Several other government, particularly the police, supported this resolution. The growing number of crimes in the larger cities in the U.s.a. alarmed the public. In 1922 while there were seventeen murders committed in London there were 260 in New York Metropolis and heroin addiction was blamed for a number of the New York murders.[29] Carleton Simon, Special Deputy Law Commissioner in New York wrote (Feb 1924):[30] "Ninety-four per cent of the criminal drug addicts arrested in New York Urban center use heroin regularly. Placing the consumers receiving their drugs from the illicit narcotic street venders in New York Urban center at a minimum of 10,000 (based upon statistics of arrests), using at an boilerplate of 10 grains a day per individual, we have a total of 76,000 ounces as the yearly quantity of heroin used by the narcotic addicts who procure their drugs on the streets in New York City lonely." The unabridged amount of heroin prescribed by the entire medical profession in the Country of New York was in the same period estimated to be l-viii ounces.

The event of these observations was a congressional police that prohibited the import of crude opium for the purpose of manufacturing heroin (June 1924).[31]

The production of heroin by pharmaceutical factories ceased within a very brusk time. As a substitute for heroin, the factories full-bodied their efforts on the product of codeine. The quantity of codeine substituted for heroin must be about two to half dozen times the weight of the quantity of heroin originally used if a similar medicinal effect is to be obtained. Since at that place is fiddling difference between the quantities of heroin and codeine produceable from a given quantity of opium, the quantity of opium required to be imported into the United States had to be greater after the enactment of the law. This is the main reason for the high opium import of the Us presently later 1924.[32]

Although the legitimate production of heroin practically ceased after 1924, the addicts' need for the drug continued to be supplied by smugglers. The heroin traffic in United states of america reached its peak in the last part of the 1920'due south. By 1930-1932, there was a sharp drop in the traffic due mainly to international restrictions. The heroin still in the illicit traffic was mostly adulterated.

When World War II started, stricter edge controls and lack of shipping lessened the illicit supplies of heroin. To stretch the supplies the traffickers resorted to more and more adulteration and dilution of the drug. The heroin finally obtained past the addict often contained less than two per cent of heroin. Many addicts were involuntarily cured, some without even realizing information technology. Others bankrupt off the habit at least temporarily.

AVERAGE PERCENT OF ADULTERATION OF HEROIN FOUND IN ILLICIT TRAFFIC Calendar YEARS 1938, 1939, 1940 and 1941

* By the time the drug reaches the aficionado, much of it is less than one% pure.

As one stated: "If I could get proficient heroin or morphine again I would probably go back to using the drugs. As it is, I won't bear on information technology as it has so much other stuff mixed with it that it is dangerous." [33]

The post-obit figures bear witness the amount of seized heroin in the United States from 1930 till 1950:[34]

Another part of the globe where heroin addiction attracted attending was Egypt. From ancient times hashish had been used as a narcotic in this state. The employ of narcotics was nevertheless not such a serious problem before the "white drugs" came into the picture.[35]

This started in 1916, cocaine first being sold non-medically and shortly afterwards heroin. The toll of the new narcotic was kept low to starting time with, until the vice had spread and defenseless big numbers of victims in its grip.[36]

At that place were even instances when contractors were paying their labourers with heroin.[37] The vice spread to every class of Egyptian social club and a new kind of slum was formed equally the consequence of heroin addiction. The hygienic conditions amidst the addicts were often beyond description and all sorts of sicknesses followed in the wake of heroin. Thus a great epidemic of malignant malaria started among the addicts in 1928, spread past the hypodermic syringe, which was injected into ane person to the other without being disinfected after the utilize.[38] The total number of addicts in Egypt at the stop of the 1920'southward has been estimated to half a million. Taking into consideration that the full population of Arab republic of egypt at that time was near fourteen million, the extent of the problem may be realized.

----------	Total number of seizures containing Heroin	- - - - -	Total number of seizures containing Opium
- - - - -	Total number of seizures containing Hashish	----------	Full number of seizures containing Cocaine

Before the get-go Earth War, in that location had been no drastic narcotic regulations in Egypt. The maximum penalty was vii days' imprisonment or a fine of LE ane.[39] There had been no need for stronger measures. When it became evident that the heroin addiction had become a serious problem, a new law was enacted which became effective in 1925. This new law made the trafficking in and the possession of narcotics illegal, classifying the offence as a "délit"with a maximum penalty of i year's imprisonment and LE 100 fine. During the first twelve months afterwards the enactment of the new police, 5,600 prosecutions were fabricated under it in Cairo solitary. Within the year the maximum penalties were increased to 5 years' imprisonment and LE 1,000 fine. The new law made the drug traffic much more difficult in Egypt, but wholesale smuggling of the heroin began and increased in intensity until 1929. It is interesting to compare the number of seized heroin samples with the other narcotics in Egypt after the narcotic law in 1925. The number of seizures is a good indication of the traffic in narcotics. It seems from the table that the habit to heroin in Egypt reached its peak in 1929 and from then on it dropped chop-chop.

This drib after 1929 was due to 2 causes. The 1925 Convention on Narcotic Drugs had just come up into event and international measures quickly cut down the supply from all sources that made whatever pretense of legality. Also, new and vigorous legislation was enacted by the Turkish Regime, and 3 big factories in Turkey were airtight down. To outset with, well-nigh of the illegal heroin in Egypt came from Europe,[41] but through stricter control these sources were closed and Turkey became the main source of supply. The manufacturers in Turkey transferred their equipment to other countries they thought to be more safe. Most of it went to Bulgaria where in a curt fourth dimension three or iv larger factories were in operation.[42] I of the Bulgarian factories opened in October 1931 and in the get-go months turned out 1,500 kilogrammes of heroin which was smuggled out in trunks into Germany and France en road to Hamburg for the American market, and to Marseilles for the Egyptian and the Far Eastern markets. This new site of heroin product was discussed by the League of Nations Advisory Committee on traffic in opium and other dangerous drugs in 1931 with the consequence that the Bulgarian Authorities closed downwards the factories and made the manufacturers one time over again homeless.

TABLE SHOWING THE RESULTS OF ANALYSES AS REPORTED Past THE LEGOMEDICAL OFFICER IN EGYPT40

	1922	1923	1924	1925	1926	1927	1928	1929	1930	1931	1932	1933	1934	1935
Hashish	241	500	1016	2465	1853	1260	1865	2935	2534	2789	1759	1214	1173	863
Opium	38	83	162	621	407	669	720	681	756	1433	989	1052	992	938
Morphine	105	105	590	2500	225	347	353	134	115	74	48	39	49	116
Cocaine	119	148	569	g	226	426	220	122	--	x	5	5	7	1
Heroin	--	11	35	1872	3783	7475	8150	10000	7456	6947	1685	377	261	684

	1936	1937	1938	1939	1940	1941	1942	1943	1944	1945	1946	1947	1948	1949
Hashish	569	609	574	1038	1296	1450	2048	2159	1269	1259	2211	3978	4238	4660
Opium	806	1020	955	2156	2388	2321	1569	1440	1644	2011	2235	3269	3753	3302
Morphine	25	vii	xiv	21	iii	--	v	2	6	8	7	17	five	7
Cocaine	one	--	--	--	9	--	--	ane	2	8	xvi	12	seven	xiii
Heroin	802	761	874	1375	594	113	eighteen	1	--	--	29	38	13	thirty

China now became a center of heroin product and the epidemic spread of heroin addiction. This country was already suffering from the apply of smoking opium and the Chinese regime had with varying results tried to stamp out opium addiction. Around the first of the century, the "white drugs" began to go far in Mainland china from Europe.[43] Small amounts were imported legally for medical and scientific utilise, only most of information technology was smuggled in through the littoral ports. The greater potency of morphine and heroin was discovered by an increasing number of former opium addicts, specially in the coastal cities. In addition to products from the western globe, Japanese pharmaceutical firms also started the manufacture of keen quantities of heroin, and sent information technology to the Chinese market to fulfil the growing need of the newly created addicts.[44]

The cheapness and the say-so of heroin attracted the Chinese addict. A few cents would buy a dose of heroin or a heroin cigarette. In pill form the consumption of the drug is more clandestine and consumes less fourth dimension than the opium smoking. Whenever the prohibition on smoking opium was periodically enforced by the Chinese Regime; the consumption of the white drugs would increase since the absence of the opium aroma and the opium pipe made it easier to evade the police. Even when opium smoking was tolerated on condition of registration, the white drugs retained their popularity, for the addicts feared to register because they would then be known and the government might at any fourth dimension decide to cut off their supplies.[45] Because of ceremonious war, revolutions, and war with Nihon, the operation of the laws concerning narcotics in China have often been ineffective. The laws relating to the white drugs are the strictest that China has ever tried to enforce. The Conditional Regulations for the Drastic Prohibition of Highpowered Narcotic Drugs were promulgated in May 1934[46] to deal with the increasingly serious danger of manufactured drugs. Co-ordinate to these regulations, the penalty for the manufacture, transportation, and sale of highpowered narcotic drugs containing morphine, cocaine or heroin was death. The penalty for giving protection to those who manufacture, send, or sell such drugs was likewise death.

Later on January i, 1937 even uncured addicts were given life imprisonment or executed.[47]

The goal of the government was the suppression of the addiction in a six-yr period. The progress obtained under the new laws was abruptly interrupted by the outbreak of the war between China and Japan in 1937. In the unoccupied part of China efforts were still fabricated to suppress the drug habit. When the six-twelvemonth plan for the suppression of narcotics terminated January i, 1941, the Chinese Government circulated a statement throughout Free People's republic of china warning against all farther indulgence of opium.[48] In February 1941, the death sentence was decreed for all persons cultivating poppies, manufacturing opium or narcotics, and for the distribution and sale of narcotics. The aforementioned law provided that heroin addicts were to be shot if apprehended taking injections or smoking heroin pills and that opium smokers were to be imprisoned from one to 5 years.

Before and during Globe War Two it was commonly reported that the Japanese occupying forces had protected the manufacture and trade with heroin in their territories. This was confirmed after the war when large heroin factories were discovered by the Allies.[49]

The Commissioner of Narcotics of the United States reported that in one mill at Seoul, Korea, operated by the militarist Japanese Government of that fourth dimension, i,244 kilos of heroin were manufactured in 1938; and in 1939, 1,327 kilos. During these ii years, while the Japanese occupied Manchuria, 2,400 kilos of this heroin were consigned to the Manchukuo Monopoly Bureau. The normal annual heroin requirements for China, including Manchuria, prior to 1938 were 15 kilos.

The total world medical needs for heroin for 1938 and 1939 were not more than ane,200 kilos for each yr. Appropriately, the output of this one heroin factory alone was more than than the total globe medical needs for heroin.

INTERNATIONAL CONTROL OF HEROIN

The Hague Opium Convention of 1912 placed heroin in the same category as morphine and cocaine.[fifty] The Convention imposed an obligation on the Contracting Parties to "utilize their best endeavours" to limit the manufacture, sale and use of the drugs exclusively to medical and legitimate purposes. A control was to exist instituted over all persons manufacturing, importing, selling, distributing and exporting the drug and its salts. Registers of the amounts manufactured, imported, and exported were to be kept. Furthermore, dealings with unauthorized persons in the international trade of these drugs were forbidden. All preparations containing more 0.1% heroin were also to be controlled. At that place was however no indication how the control over product and distribution should be implemented. Every land was immune to make up one's mind for itself the best method. Past the time of the outbreak of the first World War, only eleven countries had ratified the Convention, although seven others had notified their willingness to exercise and so. The peace treaties later the end of the war, however, automatically brought the Hague Convention into forcefulness between the parties to the treaties.

The principal defect of the Hague Convention was that information technology created no administrative machinery for the implementation of the principles agreed on.

The Geneva Convention of 1925[51] attempted to get rid of the defects of the Hague Convention and as far equally heroin is concerned confined the manufacture to those establishments and premises alone which were licensed for the purpose. It required that all persons engaged in the industry, sale, distribution, or consign of the drug should obtain a licence or permit to engage in these operations. It required also that such persons should enter into their books the quantities manufactured, imports, exports, sales and all other distribution of the drug. Under the system created by the Convention, the exporter is obliged to obtain from his regime an export licence which will but be issued on production of the copy of an import document issued by the regime of the importing country. A copy of the export say-so accompanies the consignment and must state the number and appointment of the import certificate and so that information technology tin be linked with information technology. Transit through a 3rd country and the diversion of a assignment were also strictly controlled. By these means a strict cheque was fabricated possible over the international trade in narcotic drugs. The Convention besides abolished under the supervision of the Permanent Primal Opium Board gear up upwardly by the new International Musical instrument the exemption in the Hague Convention of 1912 for preparations containing not more than 0.ten% of the drug.

The Geneva Convention came into force on 28 September, 1928.[52] The abrupt drib in seizures of heroin both in United States of America and in Egypt shortly later the enforcement of the Convention began, clearly shows the considerable headway made in the control of the drug traffic. (See graphs on page 8 and on page 9.)

All the same, the controls brought almost under this Convention did not limit directly the quantities of drugs to exist manufactured. When in 1929 and 1930 the Egyp- tian Government reported the serious situation that had been created in the Heart East by the existence of uncontrolled factories in Turkey (see page 9), the tenth Associates of the League adopted unanimously a resolution in favour of a system of limiting the industry of dangerous drugs. The system of limitation finally embodied in the Limitation Convention of 1931[53] is based upon estimates which contracting and non-contracting parties are asked to furnish of the drugs required during the coming twelvemonth. The estimates are based solely on the medical and scientific requirements of the country furnishing them and are designed to include:

1. The quantity necessary for utilise as such for medical and scientific needs, including the quantity required for the manufacture of preparations for the export of which consign authorizations are not required, whether such preparations are intended for domestic consumption or for export.

2. The quantity necessary for the purpose of conversion, whether for domestic consumption or for export.

3. The amount of the reserve stocks which it is desired to maintain.

4. The quantity required for the establishment and maintenance of whatsoever authorities stock.

These estimates are examined and endorsed past a Supervisory Trunk gear up upwards by the Convention. In cases where the national estimates seem excessive, the Supervisory Torso has the correct to make recommendations to the governments concerned, with a view to their reduction. In instance estimates are non furnished by whatever state, the Supervisory Body is empowered by Article 2 of the Convention to make the estimates itself. Special restrictions were laid on diacetylmor-phine and its preparations past Commodity 10 of the Convention. Exports were prohibited, except on the request of the government of a country not manufacturing diacetylmorphine accompanied by an import certificate.

LICIT Industry AND CONSUMPTION OF DIACETYLMORPHINE

The effect of the 1925 and 1931 Conventions will exist seen from the production figures given below and the graph on page 12.[54] The figures show a drop in acknowledged heroin production from almost 4,000 kgs. in 1930 to almost 1,100 kgs. in 1934 and well-nigh 600 kgs. in 1935. The Permanent Central Opium Lath reviews the progress of international control of drugs as follows: [55]

(November 1947)

"In the case of manufactured drugs, the period during which the international control tin can be described as having been earth wide in scope is relatively short, the half-dozen years 1931-1936. This fact... was due to events ufelated to the problem itself, which resulted in a number of countries ceasing to replenish the Board with the statistics required. Even so, the Board feels justified in stating fifty-fifty on the basis of the short period for which it has complete statistics, that some of the chief aims of the ii conventions on the control of manufactured drugs-namely, a consummate account of the supplies bachelor (Geneva Convention of 1925) and the limitation of the manufacture to medical and scientific requirements (Limitation Convention of 1931) have been to a large extent and subject to one exception attained."

World Manufacture of Diacetylmorphine

The exception mentioned concerned the illegal manufacture of heroin in Japan and Korea discussed previously. (Run into page 10.) It was estimated that from 1934 to 1937, 94 per cent of the world supply was accounted for. From August ane, 1946 the work of the Opium Section of the League of Nations was transferred to the Sectionalisation of Narcotic Drugs of the United Nations.

Equally between pre-state of war and post-war there has been some changes in the proportion of the earth's output produced by the heroin-manufacturing countries.[56]

	Boilerplate 1934-1937	1948
Nihon	299 kgs.	--
USSR	162 "	--
Deutschland	60 "	--
United Kingdom	110 "	300 kgs.
Italia	ninety "	276 "
Finland	-- "	73 "
Other countries	184 "	184 "
	905 kgs.	835 kgs.

It is also interesting to annotation the pre- and mail-state of war legal consumption of heroin in the various countries. (Encounter graphs on pages 12-13.) Whereas in most countries, there has been a decrease in the consumption per 1000000 inhabitants, in a few others there has been a marked increment.

PRESENT STAGE OF THE HEROIN Problem

(The question of total suppression of heroin every bit a drug)

Due to the fact that in various parts of the world the heroin traffic has increased since World War II, creating conditions which have attracted the public'south attention, such as the addiction among teen-agers in New York and other large cities in the Usa, [58] the question of total suppression of heroin is being discussed by international organizations. The question of world-wide suppression of heroin production is not however of contempo appointment. Such a proposal was made every bit early every bit 1923 in the Opium Advisory Committee which recommended the Council to request Governments to communicate their views as to the possibility of full suppression of the manufacture of heroin.[59] The replies from Governments indicated a sectionalisation of opinion betwixt the Governments which were willing to consider the possibility of full abolition and those which took the view that heroin is indispensable, for medical practise. The proposal for abolition was rejected by the Conference in 1925.[threescore]

At the 1931 Limitation Briefing[61] a proposal was first moved for the total abolition of the use of heroin. This was objected to on the grounds that the drug was of medical value; that practically none was escaping into the illicit traffic for the amounts exported by manufacturing countries on the basis of import certificates, and that, fifty-fifty if heroin were abolished, information technology could be manufactured from morphine past whatever trafficker without whatever particular difficulty. In the event, the legal use of heroin was non forbidden, just special restrictions were put on heroin, in Article 10 of the Convention. In reply to a circular letter of the alphabet sent by the League of Nations to governments in 1934[62] requesting opinions on the possibility of abolishing or restricting the use of diacetylmorphine, 12 countries communicated reasons why they did non feel able to consider abolishing or restricting the apply of the drug. Four countries answered that they were in favour of restricting the utilise of diacetylmorphine, viii countries stated that the use of the drug was already restricted de jure or de facto in their territories, ix countries stated that they were in favour of completely abolishing the apply of diacetylmorphine. Finally, 7 countries stated that the use of diacetylmorphine was in fact already prohibited in their territories by various measures.

DIACETYLMORPHINE Consumption per inhabitants during the years 1930 to 1934.

The Usa Government had already in 1924 prohibited the import of opium for the manufacture of heroin (see page 7).[34]

The Bulgarian Government had prohibited the importation, industry of and trade in heroin (25 July 1934).[63]

Past prescript of August 3, 1933,[64] the Castilian Govern- ment had prohibited the manufacture, import, distribution and consumption of diacetylmorphine.

In Costa-Rica[65] the use of diacetylmorphine had been entirely prohibited from October 24, 1928.

According to the Mexican Health Code[66] (from 1924) the import, export, training, possession, use and consumption of the drug was prohibited.

In Greece, heroin was excluded from the listing of narcotic drugs whose use was permitted by the Greek State Monopoly (1930).[66]

From 1931, the Polish Government[66] prohibited in its territory the manufacture, import and consign of diacetylmorphine.

The indispensability of heroin from the point of view of the medical profession has largely decreased since the introduction of dihydrocodeinone, dihydromorphinone and some of the new synthetic analgesics. In answer to a similar enquiry past the World Wellness System in 1950,[67] 38 member States accept replied that they are in favour of dispensing with heroin, while 9 States are in favour of retaining information technology. The latter, nonetheless, includes several of the chief manufacturing countries of the globe.

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Dankwortt, W.: Archiv der Pharmacie, 1890, 228, 572.

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Dreser, H.: Pharmacologisches über einige Morphinderivate, Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, 1898, 24, Vereins Beilage, 185.

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Strube, One thousand.: Mittheilung über therapeutische Versuche mit Heroin, Klinische Wochenschrift, 1898, 38.

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Floret: Klinische Versuche über die Wirkung und An-wendung des Heroins, Therapeutische Monatschrifte, 1898, 12.

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Dreser: Abstruse in Journal of American Medical Association, 1898.

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Leo, H.: Über den therapeutischen Wert des Heroins, Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, 25, 185.

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Manges, K.: New York Medical Journal, November 1898, 26.

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Manges, M.: A 2d report on therapeutics of heroin, New York Medical Journal, 71, 51.

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Harnack, E.: Über dice Giftigkeit des Heroins, München medizinische Wochenschrift, 1899, 46, 881-884, 1019.

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Turnauer, B.: Über Heroinwirkung, Wien medizinische Presse, twoscore, 457.

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Wood, Horatio C. Jr.: The newer substitutes for morphine, peronine, dionine, heroin, Mercks Archiv 1899.

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Jacobi, J.: Über dice Wirkung des Heroins, Wien. med. Wochenschrift, 51, 1853, 1924, 1963, 2017.

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Morel-Lavallée, A.: Les Alcaloides de l'Opium, Morphine, Héroïne, Dionine, Revue de thérapeutique, 1902, 69.

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Prettey, Thou. E.: The heroin habit some other expletive, Alabama Medical Journal, 1902-03, 15, 174-180.

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Sollier, P.: Heroine et héroïnomanie, Presse med., 13, 716.

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Report of the Committee of Experts apropos Diacetylmorphine (Heroin) Records of the Conference for the Limitation of the Manufacture of Narcotic Drugs, League of Nations, Geneva, May 27th to July 13th, 1931. Vol. II. 529.

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Woods, Arthur: Unsafe Drugs, The World Fight against illicit traffic in Narcotics, New Oasis, Yale University Press, 1931, fourteen.

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Payne, E. George: The Menace of Narcotic Drugs, A Give-and-take of Narcotics and Education, New York, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1931, 17.

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Todd, A. R.: Hashish, Experimentia, Vol. 2/2, 1946, 55.

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Golden Mortimer, W.: Peru, History of Coca, J. H. Vail & Company, New York, 1901.

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Wolff, P.: (a) Die Suchten und ihre Bekämpfung. (Morphinismus, Kokainismus, u.a.) Sonderabdruck aus der "Apotheker-Zeitung 1927, f. 17/twenty, 3.

(b) Cyril et Berger: La "Coco" Poison moderne, Paris, Ernest Flammarion, 26, rue Racine, 1926.

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Foreign Policy Association, Pamphlet No. 24. Series of 1923-1924, 4.

⁰²⁸

The Journal of the American Medical Association, May 8, 1920, 1318.

⁰²⁹

Foreign Policy Clan, Pamphlet No. 24, Serial of 1923-1924, 3.

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Foreign Policy Clan, Pamphlet No. 24, Series of 1923-1924, seven.

⁰³¹

U. Due south. Treasury Department, Bureau of Narcotics, Regulations No. ii relating to Importation,... of Opium or Coca Leaves...under the Human activity of May 26, 1922, as amended by the Act of June 7, 1924, The states Regime Printing Office, Washington, 1938.

⁰³²

League of Nations document. No. O.C.23(i)four, May 31, 1926, 24.

⁰³³

U. S. Treasury Department, Bureau of Narcotics. Traffic in Opium and other dangerous Drugs for the twelvemonth concluded December 31, 1940. U. S. Printing Office, Washington, 1941, 19.

⁰³⁴

(a) Traffic in Opium and other dangerous Drugs for the year concluded Dec 31, 1932. U.S. Regime Press Office, Washington D.C.

(b) League of Nations document. No. C.96 Thou. 43, 1935 11, [O.C. 294 (v)], 42.

(c) Traffic in Opium and other dangerous Drugs for the year ended December 31, 1933. U.Due south. Government Printing Function, Washington D.C.

(d) League of Nations document. No. C. 81. M. 29, 1936, XI. [O.C.S. 294 (z)], 44.

(e) League of Nations Document. No. C. 124, M. 77, 1937, Eleven. [O.C.S. 300 (c)], 38

(f) League of Nations Document. No. C. 65. Chiliad. 27. 1939. XI. [O.C.Southward. 300 (grand)], 38.

(thousand) Traffic in Opium and other dangerous Drugs for the yr ended December 31, 1944. U.South. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C., 1945

(h) League of Nations Certificate. C. 91. G. 91, 1946, XI, [O.C.S. 300 (two)], 46.

(i) United Nations Document, E/NS 1946/Summary, three July 1947, 127.

(1000) Un Document, Due east/NS. 1951/Summary 1/Add, 22 March 1951, xviii.

(fifty) Traffic in Opium and other dangerous Drugs for the Year concluded December 31, 1950. U.S. Treasury Department, Agency of Narcotics, U. S. Authorities Printing Office, Washington: 1951, 18.

⁰³⁵

Thomas Russel Pasha, Egyptian Service 1902-1946, Butler and Tanner Ltd., Fromeand London 1949, 225.

⁰³⁶

Ibid, p. 226

⁰³⁷

Almanac Written report for the Year 1931, Egyptian Authorities,Central Narcotics Intelligens Bureau, Cairo, Government Press, 1932, 131.

⁰³⁸

Thomas Russel Pasha : Egyptian Service 1902-1946, Butler and Tanner Ltd., Frome and London 1949, 224.

⁰³⁹

Ibid, p. 225.

⁰⁴⁰

(a) Egyptian Government, Central Narcotics Intelligens Agency, Almanac Report for the year 1937, Government Press. Bulaq, Cairo, 1938, 114.

(b) Egyptian Government, Primal Narcotics Intelligens Bureau, Almanac Study for the yr 1940, Government Printing, Bulaq, Cairo, 1941, 74.

(c) Egyptian Government, Central Narotics Intelligens Bureau, Annual Report for the year 1944, Government Press, Bulaq, Cairo, 1945, 78.

(d) Egyptian Regime, Key Narcotics Intelligens Agency, Annual Study for the year 1949, Government Press, Bulaq, Cairo, 1951, 146

⁰⁴¹

Wolff, P.: Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift, f. 37/38, 1931, 7.

⁰⁴²

Thomas Russel Pasha : Egyptian Service 1902-1946, Butler and Tanner Ltd., Frome and London 1949, 241.

⁰⁴³

Merril, Frederick T.: Japan and the Opium Menace, Institute of Pacific Relations and the Foreign Policy Association, New York, 1942, xv.

⁰⁴⁴

Ibid, p xv.

⁰⁴⁵

Ibid, p xvi.

⁰⁴⁶

Traffic in Opium and Other Unsafe Drugs, Annual Report, 1934, Chinese Government Opium Suppression Commission, Nanking, China, 4.

⁰⁴⁷

Merril, Frederick T.: Japan and the Opium Menace, Institute of Pacific Relations and the Strange Policy Association, New York, 1942, 31.

⁰⁴⁸

Ibid, p. 46.

⁰⁴⁹

Permanent Key Opium Lath, Report of the Work of the Board, United Nations certificate, Geneva, 21 October 1946, E/OB/1.

⁰⁵⁰

International Opium Convention, Signed at The Hague, Jan 23rd, 1912, Commodity xiv(c). (League of Nations document : O. C. ane (I). 29)

⁰⁵¹

League of Nations, Second Opium Conference, Signe at Geneva on February 19th, 1925. (League of Nations certificate: C. 88. M. 44. 1925. Xi. (O.D.C. 106 (3); O.D.C. seven (2); O.D.C. 130 (ane).)

⁰⁵²

International Conciliation, No. 441, 329.

⁰⁵³

League of Nations, Conference for the Limitation of the Manufacture of Narcotic Drugs. (Geneva, May 27th-July 13th, 1931) (C. 455. 1000.193. 1931. Xi.)

⁰⁵⁴

(a) Series of League of Nations Publications 11. Opium and other Dangerous Drugs, xix.

(b) Series of League of Nations Publications XI, Opium and other Dangerous Drugs, 1932, Xi. half dozen, 8.

(c) Series of League of Nations Publications XI, Opium and other Dangerous Drugs, 1933, 11, 4, 68.

(d) Series of League of Nations Publications XI, Opium and other Unsafe Drugs, 1934, 78.

(e) Series of League of Nations Publications Eleven, Opium and other Dangerous Drugs,1936, XI, 21, 10.

(f) Series of League of Nations Publications XI, Opium and other Dangerous Drugs,1937, XI, 8.

(one thousand) Serial of League of Nations Publications XI, Opium and other Dangerous Drugs, 1938, Xi, v, fourteen.

(h) Series of League of Nations Publications Xi, Opium and other Dangerous Drugs, 1939, 11, 8, 68.

(i) Un Publication, E/OB/five, Oct 1949, 38.

(j) United Nations Publication, East/OB/seven, November 1951, 39.

(k) United nations Publication, E/OB/7, Nov 1951, 14.

⁰⁵⁵

Permanent Central Opium Board, United Nations, Geneva, November 1947, (Eastward/OB/2), 25.

⁰⁵⁶

Permanent Central Opium Board, United Nations, Geneva, October 1949, (E/OB/5), 17.

⁰⁵⁷

(a) Permanent Central Opium Board, Un, Geneva, November 1950, (E/OB/6) 39.

(b) Permanent Central Opium Board, Un, Geneva, Nov 1951, (Due east/OB/7) 48.

⁰⁵⁸

Anslinger, H. J.: The Facts About our Teen-Age Drug Addicts, The Reader'southward Assimilate, October 1951.

⁰⁵⁹

League of Nations, Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium and other Dangerous Drugs, Minutes of the Fifth Session, (League of Nations Document No. C. 418. M. 184. 1923. XI.), 121 and 205.

⁰⁶⁰

League of Nations Document No. C. 760. M. 260. 1924. Xi. C. 105.

⁰⁶¹

League of Nations Document No. C. 191.Grand.136. 1937. XI., 231.

⁰⁶²

(a) League of Nations Certificate, No. C. 50. 61. 1934. Xi.

(b) League of Nations Document, No. C. 178. M. 114. 1936. Eleven., O.C. 1589(1).

⁰⁶³

Ordinance No. 766, of June 9th 1934, from the Bulgarian Government. Ann. Report from Bulgaria 1934.

⁰⁶⁴

Decret of iii Baronial 1934, from Spanish Authorities. League of Nations file, No. 12/8978/427.

⁰⁶⁵

Costa Rica: Ley sobre Drogas Estupefacientes, Secretaría de Salubridad Pública y Protección Social, San José de Republic of costa rica 1930, 4.

⁰⁶⁶

League of Nations document C. L. 228. 1938, 11. Annex. O.C. 1743 (1).

⁰⁶⁷

United nations, World Health Arrangement, Document No. WHO/APD/23 Add together.ane., 3 December 1950.

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